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With the development of functional neuroimaging has come a host of ethical issues.  Some of these are classical bioethical issues, including safety (e.g., for scans involving radiation or high magnetic field strengths) and researchers’ obligations when incidental findings of abnormal brain structure or function are observed in research scans.  Other issues arise from the unprecedented and rapidly developing ability to correlate brain activation with psychological states and traits.

Amen, D.G. and Flaherty, L.T. (2006). See more articles from Clinical Psychiatry News Is brain imaging clinically useful for psychiatrists?(POINT/COUNTERPOINT). Clinical Psychiatry News, September 1.

American Journal of Law & Medicine. (2007). Symposium Issue: Brain Imaging and the Law.

Annas, G.J. (2007). Foreward: Imagining a New Era of Neuroimaging, Neuroethics, and Neurolaw. American Journal of Law & Medicine, 33: 163-170.

Cacioppo, J.T. et al.  (2003).  Just because you’re imaging the brain doesn’t mean you can stop using your head: A primer and set of first principles.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85: 650-661.

Canli, T. and Amin, Z. (2002). Neuroimaging of emotion and personality: Scientific evidence and ethical considerations. Brain and Cognition, 50: 414-431.

Committee on Science and Law, Association of the Bar of the City of New York (2005). Are Your Thoughts Your Own?: “Neuroprivacy” and the Legal Implications of Brain Imaging.

*Cunningham, W.A., Johnson, M.K., Raye, C.L., Gatenby, J.C., Gore, J.C. & Banaji, M.R. (2004). Separable neural components in the processing of black and white faces. Psychological Science, 15 (12): 806-813.

*Davatzikos C, Ruparel K, Fan Y, Shen DG, Acharyya M, Loughead JW, et al. (2005). Classifying spatial patterns of brain activity with machine learning methods: application to lie detection. Neuroimage, 28: 663-8.

deCharms (2008) Applications of real-time fMRI Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 720-729

Dickson, K. and McMahon, M. (2005). Will the law come running? The potential role of "brain fingerprinting" in crime investigation and adjudication in Australia. Journal of Law and Medicine, 13: 204-222.

Dumit, J. (2003). Is It Me or My Brain? Depression and Neuroscientific Facts. Journal of Medical Humanities, 24(1-2): 35-47.

Dumit, J. (2003). Picturing Personhood: Brain Scans and Biomedical Identity. Princeton University Press.

Farah, M.J. and Wolpe, P.R. (2004). Monitoring and manipulating brain function: New neuroscience technologies and their ethical implications. Hastings Center Report, May-Jun 34 (3): 35-45.

*Farwell, L. A. and Smith, S. S. (2001). Using Brain MERMER Testing to Detect Concealed Knowledge Despite Efforts to Conceal. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46 (1):1-9.

Gray, Jeremy R., & Thompson, Paul M. (2004). Neurobiology of intelligence: Science and ethics. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5: 471-482.

*Greene, J.D., Sommerville, R.B., Nystrom, L.E., Darley, J.M. and Cohen, J.D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgement. Science, 293: 2105-2108.

Groopman, J. (2007). Medical Dispatch: Silent Minds: what scanning techniques are revealing about vegetative patients. New Yorker, October 15.

*Hamann, S., Herman, R.A., Nolan, C.L., & Wallen, K. (2004). Men and women differ in amygdala response to visual sexual stimuli. Nature Neuroscience, 7: 411-416.

Hariri, A.R. and Weinberger, D.R. (2003). Imaging Genomics. British Medical Bulletin, 63: 259-270.

Haynes JD, Rees G. (2006). Decoding mental states from brain activity in humans. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7 (7): 523-534.

Illes, J., Kirschen, M.P., Edwards, E., et. al. (2006). Ethics: Incidental findings in brain imaging research. Science, 311 (Feb. 10, 2006): 783-784.

Illes, J. and Racine, E. (2005). Imaging or imagining?: A neuroethics challenge informed by genetics. The American Journal of Biotethics, 5 (2): 5-18.

Karama, S., Lecours, A.R., Leroux, J.M., Bourgouin, P., et. al. (2002). Areas of brain activation in males and females during viewing of erotic film excerpts. Human Brain Mapping, 16: 1-13.

Kenning, P, Plassman, H., and Ahlert, D. (2007). Applications of functional magnetic resonance imaging for market research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 10(2): 135-152.

*Kriegeskorte N. Goebel R. Bandettini P. (2006). Information-based functional brain mapping. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103 (10):3863-8.

*Langleben D.D., Schroeder L, Maldjian J.A, Gur R.C., McDonald S., Ragland J.D. et al. (2002). Brain activity during simulated deception: an event-related functional magnetic resonance study. Neuroimage, 15(3): 727-32.

McClure, S.M., York, M.K. & Montague, P.R. (2004). The neural substrates of reward processing in humans: the modern rule of fMRI. The Neuroscientist, 10 (3): 260-268.

Miller, G. (2008). Growing Pains for fMRI. Science, 13 (320): 1412-1414.

*Montague, P.R., King-Casas, B. & Cohen, J.D. (2006) Imaging valuation models in human choice. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 29: 417-448.

* Norman, K.A., Polyn, S.M. Detre, G.J. & Haxby, J.V. (2006). Beyond mind-reading: multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data. Trends in Cognitive Neuroscience, 10 (9): 424-430.

*Phelps, E.A., O'Connor, K.J., Cunningham, W.A., Funayma, E.S., Gatenby, J.C., Gore, J.C., and Banaji, M.R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activity. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12: 1-10.

Phelps, E.A. and Thomas, L.A. (2003). Race, behavior, and the brain: the role of neuroimaging in understanding complex social behaviors. Political Psychology, 24 (4): 747-758.

Poldrack, R.A., Fletcher, P.C., Henson, R. N., Worsley, K.J., Brett, M., Nichols, T.E., (2007) Guidelines for Reporting an FMRI Study, NeuroImage

Poldrack, R.A. (2006) Can cognitive processes be inferred from neuroimaging data? Trends in Cognitive Science 10(2) 59-63.

Popma, A. and Raine, A. (2006). Will Future Forensic Assessment Be Neurobiologic? Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15: 429-444.

Racine, E., Bar-Ilan, O. & Illes, J. (2005). fMRI in the public eye. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6: 159-164.

* Raine, A., Meloy, J.R., Bihrle, S., Soddard, J. LaCasse, and Buchsbaum, M.S. (1998). Reduced prefrontal and increased subcortical brain functioning assessed using positron emission tomography in predatory and affective murderers. Behavioral Science and Law, 16: 319-332.

Robinson, R. (2004). FMRI beyond the clinic: will it ever be ready for prime time? PLoS Biology, 2 (6), e150.

Ross, P. (2003). Mind readers: brain-scanning machines may soon be capable of discerning rudimentary thoughts and separating fact from fiction. Scientific American, September: 74-77.

Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R.J. & Frith, C.D. (2004). Empathy for pain involes the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science, 303 (5661): 1157-1162.

Talbot, M (2007). “Duped: can brain scans uncover lies?” The New Yorker, July 2.

Walter, H., Abler, B., Ciaramidaro, A., and Erk S. (2005). Motivating forces of human actions: neuroimaging reward and social interaction. Brain Research Bulletin, 67 (5): 368-381.

Wolpe, P. R., Foster, K. R., & Langleben, D. D. (2005). Emerging neurotechnologies for lie-detection: Promises and perils. The American Journal of Bioethics, 5 (2): 39.